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Vowels Classification

: For vowels, the classification is different; voicing is typically irrelevant, since in most languages, vowels are always voiced, and the vertical (MOA) and horizontal (POA) dimensions are more restricted.

: All vowels are produced with a stricture of open approximation, so MOA is irrelevant.

: Vowels are produced in a smaller area of the vocal tract- the palatal and velar regions, so POA is not so relevant.

: However, different vowels do involve differences in the highest point of the tougue, and the lip shape.

: Vertical -> high, mid, low vowels   i.e. sit (high) vs.  sat  (low)

: Horizontally  -> front, central, back       i.e. fee (front)   vs.  far  (back)

: Lip rounding -> unrounded, rounded vowels    i.e. see(plain)  vs. sue(rounded)

: Monophthong  vs. Diphthong   i.e. eɪ̯,ʊu̯,,aɪ̯,aʊ̯,ɔɪ̯ (외워)

Vowel Chart (=Vowel quadrilateral)

: One of the difficulties with describing the vowels of English is that there is considerable variation in the vowel sounds unttered by speakers of different accents of English.

Front Vowels

High front vowels

-[i:] in see  vs.  [i] in sit

-These two vowels are differnet in length and quality, with [i] being somewhat lower and more centralized than [i:].

-[i:] is often diphthongized.

-Often referred to as tense [i:] and lax [i] /(긴장 모음 vs. 이완 모음)

Mid front vowels

-[eɪ] in day and [ɛ] in bed

Low front vowels

-English has on short low front vowel, found in words like rat: the RP and GA vowel is represented as [æ],

-Many other kinds of BE have a lower vowel, transcribed as [a]

Back Vowels

High back vowels

-long [u:] as in shoe and short [ʊ] as in put

-As with [i:] and [i], the difference is in quality and quantity: [ʊ] is lower and more central, as well as shorter than [u:]

-[u:] is often diphthongized.

Mid back vowels

-[oʊ] in goat  vs. [ɔ:] in bought, cause, paw

Low cack vowels

-[ɑ] in father as in RP and GA, [ɒ](rounded) in dog as in many British varieties

: Many Midwestern speakers and most Far Western speakers of AE do not distinguish between the vowels in pairs of words such as "cot, caught," and "not, naught"  (Ladefoged p.39)

Central vowels

: [ʌ] in cup, luck, fuss

: Word like nurse, fir and worse typically have a mid central unrounded vowel [ɜ] in non-rhotic accents of English.

: [ə], the schwa, is found in syllables which do not carry stress.

: [ə] is also used as part of 'triphthongs'(삼중모음) in non-rhotic accents of English.

-towe, layer, mire, lawyer, lower

-these triphthongs are often subject to reduction.

RP  vs.  GA

RP

: Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent often referred to as the 'prestige' accent in British society and associated with the speech of the graduates of the English public school. It is defined largely in terms of the social class of its speakers.

GA

: General American (GA) tends to be defined in terms of the geographical location, rather than the social class, of its speakers. The term 'GA' is an idealization over a group of accents whose speakers inhabit a vast proportion of the U.S.: it excludes Eastern accents such as the New York City accent, and Southern accents. (Carr 1999, p23)

Consonants  vs. Vowels

: The essential difference between consonants and vowels would seem to have to do with degree of stricture, i.e. the distance between the active and passive articulators.

: For consonants there is some kind of obstruction(방해) in the oral tract, whereas for vowels there is no such hindrance to the outflow of the air.

More on consonants  vs.  vowels

: The consonant/vowel distinction rests not so much with the phonetics as with the phonology.

: The vowel is said to be the nucleus (or peak) of the syllable, with any consonants preceding the nucleus said to be in the syllable onset, and any following the nucleus said to be in the syllable coda. 

: i.e. pin ('p' is the onset, 'i' is the nucleus, and 'n' is the coda.

: Glide behaves like consonants in that they do NOT form the nuclei of syllables.

: A vowel is a sound produced with open approximation and is a syllable nucleus.

: A glid is produced with open approximation but cannot be a syllable nucleus.

자음의 대분류

Obstruents  vs. Sonorant consonants

Obstrusents: The airflow is noticeably restricted, with the articulators either in complete closure or close approximation. i.e. oral stops, fricatives, affricates, there is voiceless  vs. voiced distinctions.

Sonorants: There is no such restriction in the oral tract or in the nasal tract; the air has free passage through the vocal tract (either through the oral or nasal tract).  i.e. nasal stops, liquids, glides, voiced only.

자음의 구분

-Obstruent Consonants

*Stops

: Stops are characterized by involving complete closure in the oral tract, preventing the airflow from existing through the mouth.

: Stops may be oral or nasal (or glottal).

: Oral stops are voiced or voiceless; nasal stops are voiced only.

-[p, b] - bilabial stops (pig, bear)

-[t, d] - alveorar stops (tiger, dog)

-[k, g] - velar stops (cat, gorilla)

-[?]  - glottal stop (uh-oh) -> voiceless only

Variation in stops

1. Aspiration (delayed VOT)

: voiceless stops fall into two classes: aspirated and unaspirated.  - i.e. pie, spy; tie, sty; core, score

: Aspirated consonants are followed by a brief puff of air, but unaspirated consonants are not.

: Hold palm in front of your lips and say pie. You will feel a puff of air, which you will not feel when you say spy.

: Precisely speaking, the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants depends on the timing of the vocal cord closure or vibration (which we call voice onset time or simply VOT.

: When you say pin (aspirated p), the vocal cords remain open for a short time after the lips come apart to relese the p.

: When we pronounce the unaspirated p in spin, the vocal cords start vibration as soon as the lips open.

2. Glottalization

: Glottalization or glottal reinforcement: As well as closure in the oral tract, there is an accompanying (brief) closure of the vocal cords, resulting in a kind of dual articulation.

: This glottalization is particularly likely for final stops in emphatic utterances, such as 'stop that!'

: Voiceless stops may be replaced by a glottal stop under some circumstances. i.e. - at night, Britain (before nasal)

-great smile, grape fruit (before a homoganic obstruent)

3. Place assimilation (많은 언어에서도 매우 흔한 현상)

-hot potato   bad boy   sad man

: In each case, the closure for the 't' ot 'd' will not be alveolar but will be assimilated the place of articulation f the following segment. (cf. homoganic consonants)

Fricatives

: Fricatives are produced when the active articulator is close to, but not actually in contact with, the passive articulator.

: As the air exits, it is forced through a narrow passage between the articulators, resulting in considerable friction, hence the term 'fricative'.

-[f,v] -labio-dental fricatives (fox, vixen)

-[θ,ð] - (inter)dental fricatives (moth, this)

-[s.z] - alveolar fricatives (snake, zebra)

-[ʃ,ʒ] - palato-alveolar fricatives (shrew, measure)

-[h] glottal fricative (haddock) (얘만 무성음)

-[x] voiceless velar fricative (loch in Scottish and Irish) 등등

Variation in fricatives

: Place assimilation to the following consonant

-horse shoe, Miss Universe, misjudge, cross check

-was she, freeze your toes, those shoes, please share

-cf. I'll bet you, I read your book)

: Complete assimilation of [,ð] to a preceding consonant

-in the pub

-all the time

-is there any beer

: Elision(탈락) of [v], [ð], or [θ] 

-piece of cake

-could have been

-months, clothes

Affricates

: The difference between affricates and stops lies in the nature of the release: for a standard stop, the active articulator is lowered swiftly and fully, allowing a sudden, unhindered explosion of air: for affricates, the active articulator remains close to the passive articulator, resulting in friction as the air passes between them, as for fricatives.

-[tʃ,dʒ] palato-alveolar affricates

: Phonetically, affricates are similar to a stop followed by a fricative; however, they do not behave like a sequence of two segments.

-Sonorant Consonants

Nasal

: Nasals are a variety of stop; they are formed with complete closure in the oral tract.

: The difference between nasal and oral stop is that for nasals the velum is lowered, allowing air into(and out through) the nasal cavity.

: Nasals are sonorants, and are thus typically voiced only.

-[m] -bilibial nasal (moth)

-[n] - alveolar nasal (nuthatch)

-[ŋ] - velar nasal (wing)

Variation in nasals: 'place' assimilation

-win more, can play, phone booth

-tin cup, mean guys, bacon grease

-triumph, nymph, comfort, some fun, in vain

-month, enthusiasm, on Thursday (cf. eight, width, health)

Liquids

: Liquid is a cover term given to 'l' and 'r' sounds

: What liquids have in common is that they are produced with unhindered airflow but nontheless involve some kind of obstruction in the oral tract (unlike glides and vowels, which are articulated with open approximation)

: Liquids are sonorants and are typically voiced.

Liquids: laterals

: With laterals, there is contact between the active articulator (the tongue) and the passive articulator(the roof of the mouth)

: But only the central part of the tongue is involved in this contact (mid-sagittal contact); there is no contact for (at least on of) the sides of the tongue.

: The air is free to exit along the channels down the sides of the oral tract, hence the name 'lateral'.

-only [l] exits in English.

Variation in laterals: clear  vs.  dark 'l'

-[l] leaf, let, please, clean, simply

-[ɫ] feel, tell, help, milk, film, simple,

-Clear /l/ is the normal /l/ sound produced as lateral liquid.

: Dark /l/, like clear /l/, is made with the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge. primary articulation.

: In addition, there is a simulataneous raising of the back of the tongue towards the velum.

(secondary articularion(velarization)

Liquids: rhotics

:Rhotics include a wide variety of articulations, even within English:

-the alveolar trill(진동/rrr) [r]: the tongue blade vibrates repeatedly against the alveolar ridge (Scottish)

-the alveolar tap(/flap) [ɾ]: a single tap of the tongue blade against the alveolar ridge (North AE and Scottish)

-the alveolar [ɹ]: produced with the tongue blade raised towards the alveolar ridge and the sides of the tongue in contact with the molars, forming a narrow channel down the middle of the tongue (many kinds of BE, including RP)

-the retroflex [ɺ̢]: produced in a way similar to [ɹ] but with the tongue blade curled back to a post-alveolar position (North AE and South West BE)

Glides

: In articulatory terms, glides are rather more like vowels than consonants, since there is no contact of any kind between the articulators (cf. semi-vowels).

: Glides behave like consonants, however, in that they do not form syllable nuclei.

-[j] a palatal glide (similar to [i], with the front of the tongue close to the palate) (e.g. yes)

-[w] a labial-velar glide (similar to [u], with rounded lips and the back of the tongue raised toward the velum) (e.g. weight)

-[ɥ] a labial-palatal glide (similar to the front round vowel [y] in lui [lɥi] him in French)

통사론: 변형생성문법

*구절구조규칙은 문장과 관련된 인간의 언어능력을 잘 반영하고 있을까?

c.f. There was a man on the roof. vs. A man was on the roof.

=>구조상 다른데, 의미도 달라질까?

정신문법과 언어능력은 어떤 모습으로 머릿속에 자리하는가?

1.1. 문장 간의 관계

Q. 다음의 문장들은 문장구조에서 차이를 보인다. 즉, 어순에서 차이를 보이는데 이들은 서로 관계가 없는 문장일까?

The child is sleeping.     Is the child sleeping?

The child has slept.       Has the child slept?

The child can sleep.      Can the child sleep?

The child will sleep.      Will the child sleep?

=>우리의 직관(또는 언어능력)은 이들이 문장구조에 있어 서로 관련을 갖는다고 말한다.

=>PS rule(구절구조규칙)은 그러한 관계를 보여주지 못한다.

=>우리가 추구하는 통사규칙(즉, 문법)은 그 관계를 보여주는 것이어야 한다. 그 관계는 어떤 것일까?

평서문과 의문문 이외에 문장구조는 다르지만 서로 관계가 있는 다른 경우는?

1.능동과 피동

2. 전치사구(부사구)의 이동

3. there 문장

1.2. 구조적 중의성

A.  The woman hit the man with an umbrella.

1) VP-> V NP

NP-> NP PP

2) VP-> VP PP

VP-> V PP

2) Flying planes can be dangerous.

두가지 의미 모두 동일한 구절구조규칙으로 분석된다. 

의미의 차이를 보이는 문장은 의미 습득 과정이 다르고 그것은 기본적으로 문장구조의 차이에 있다.

=>우리가 추구하는 통사규칙(즉, 문법)은 해석에 따른 문장구조의 차이를 보여주는 것이어야 한다.

2.1. Chomsky (1928~) Transformational-Generative Grammar

Bloomfield의 구조주의에 반대: 20세기는 구조주의 언어학의 시대라고 할 수 있다. 구조주의 언어학은 '언어 체계'에 관심을 가진다. 구체적인 언어 사실 속에서 구조적인 질서를 찾아내는 것이다. 언어학에서 구조주의를 처름으로 제시한 학자는 스위스의 페르다낭 드 소쉬르이다. 미국의 구조주의 언어학은 언어 구조의 유형을 탐구한 에드워드 사피어에 의해 시작되어 언어의 단위 분포에 관심을 기울인 레너드 블룸필드에 의해 확립되었다. 특히 미국 구조주의 언어학은 기술언어학(descriptive linguistics)라고도 한다. 기술언어학은 원래 아메치카 토착인들의 문화를 연구하는데서 출발한다.  그래서 언어 자료를 정확하게 관찰하고 이를 분석하여 기술하는 철저히 귀납적이고 객관적인 방법론을 성립하였다. 그러나 언어의 본질을 밝히는데에는 여러 문제점을 드래냈다.

변형생성문법 이론은 기술언어학의 한계를 극복하면서 1957년 에이브럼 노암 촘스크가 통사구조(Syntactic Structures)라는 책을 출판함으로써 제안된 언어 이론이다. 이 이론은 인간의 언어능력을 설명하기 위하여 문장구조의 적격성을 설명하고, 정확한 문장 의미를 해석하려 한다. 그래서 가설-검증적이고 수리-논리적인 방법을 도입하였다. 변형생성문법 이론은 언어학에 일대 혁신을 불러일으켰으며, 물론 60년 가까이의 세월이 흐르는 동안 이 이론은 비판을 받기도 하였지만, 다른 어떤 언어 이론들보다 설득력 있고 강한 영향력을 가진 이론으로 발전하였다. 그래서 변형생성문법 이론은 언어과학의 여러 분야뿐만 아니라, 다른 여러 학문 분야에까지 상당한 영향을 끼쳤다. 인간의 마음을 해명하려는 인지과학, cognitive science의 형성과 발전에도 크게 기여하였다.

Noam Chomsky<Linguistic theory>

The basis to Chomsky's linguistic theory is that the principles underlying the structure of language are biologically determined in the human mind and hence genetically transmitted. He therefore argues that all humans share the same underlying linguistic structure, irrespective of socio-cultural difference. (중략)

Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar [≒ generative grammar/YH]; in particular, a context-free grammar[=PS grammar/YH] extended with transformational rules.

Perhaps his most influencial and time-tested contribution to the filed is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language.

In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterrances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. (중략)

Chomsky has argued that linguistic structures are at least partly innate, and that they reflect a "universal grammar"(UG) that underlies and can account for all human grammatical systems (in general known as mentalism). Chomsky based his arguement on observations about human language acquisition. For example, while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relecant capacity the human has that the cat lacks as the language acquisition device (LAD), and he suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to determine that the LAD is and what constraints it imposes on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG. [wikipedia]

2.2. 심층구조 (deep structure) 와 표층구조 (surface structure)

1) 심층구조

: i. 어떤 한 문장의 생성을 밑받침하고 있는 내부적인 특성을 총칭한 문법이론. 이것은 한 문장의 의미론적인 해석과 밀접한 관련을 맺는 것으로 인식적이며 논리적인 것이 특징이다. 흔히 #S# 로부터 한 문장을 유도해 내는 경우, 통사부의 최종 생성체에 대한 유도과정에 대하여 심층구조라는 말을 적용한다. [국어국문학자료사전]

ii) the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence- an underlying level structure organization which specifies all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted. [Crystal, 2008]

iii) 표층구조는 같지만 의미가 다른 경우(구조적 중의성)의 다양한 해석에 대한 정보 제공 e.g. Flying planes can be dangerous.

iv) 표층구조는 다르지만 의미가 같거나 매우 유사한 경우의 문장구조의 상관관계 제시

e.g. 호랑이가 토끼를 잡았다, 토끼가 호랑이에게 잡혔다.

v) Transformational grammars would derive one of these alternatives from the other, or perhaps both from an even more abstract ('deeper') underlying structure.

vi) D-structure, underlying structure (기저구조), base structure(기본구조), remote structure, initial structure등으로도 불린다.

2) 표층구조

: i) 실제의 구체적인 언어활동에 씅는 문장의 구조

ii) 통사구조에 있어 최종 단계의 문장구조

iii) 음운 규칙이 적용되는 단계로, 발화되고 청취되는 문장

iv) 구조적 중의성을 가진 문장을 구별하거나 능동, 피동의 상관관계 인지에 대해 설명하지 못함

=> 심층구조의 필요성이 대두

3) 심층구조 ->표층구조

2.3. 언어수행과 언어능력

*변형문법의 일반적 특징(이철수, 김준기 2000: 186f.)

i) 유한한 문법 규칙으로 무한한 문장을 생성해 낼 수 있는 언어능력의 창조성을 해명하려는 문법이다.

ii)문법은 그 언어의 모든 문법적 연쇄를 생성라는 장치라는 관점에서 유기적 규칙체계의 유한문법(finite grammar)의 성격을 띠고 있다.

iii) 잠재적 언어능력은 어느 민족이건 인간이면 누구나 선천적으로 지니고 있다는 가설에 입각하고 있다.

iv) 생략

v) 언어분석의 목표는 문법적인 문장을 비문법적인 문장으로부터 구별하고, 문법적인 문장의 구조를 보이는 데 있다.

vi) 반드시 기호와 규칙으로 추상화된 가설적 구조를 세워, 경험이 아닌 생성능력과 계시적 예보능력의 해명, 기저형식에서 파생된 관계 등을 일정한 공식으로 전개한다.