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Vowels Classification

: For vowels, the classification is different; voicing is typically irrelevant, since in most languages, vowels are always voiced, and the vertical (MOA) and horizontal (POA) dimensions are more restricted.

: All vowels are produced with a stricture of open approximation, so MOA is irrelevant.

: Vowels are produced in a smaller area of the vocal tract- the palatal and velar regions, so POA is not so relevant.

: However, different vowels do involve differences in the highest point of the tougue, and the lip shape.

: Vertical -> high, mid, low vowels   i.e. sit (high) vs.  sat  (low)

: Horizontally  -> front, central, back       i.e. fee (front)   vs.  far  (back)

: Lip rounding -> unrounded, rounded vowels    i.e. see(plain)  vs. sue(rounded)

: Monophthong  vs. Diphthong   i.e. eɪ̯,ʊu̯,,aɪ̯,aʊ̯,ɔɪ̯ (외워)

Vowel Chart (=Vowel quadrilateral)

: One of the difficulties with describing the vowels of English is that there is considerable variation in the vowel sounds unttered by speakers of different accents of English.

Front Vowels

High front vowels

-[i:] in see  vs.  [i] in sit

-These two vowels are differnet in length and quality, with [i] being somewhat lower and more centralized than [i:].

-[i:] is often diphthongized.

-Often referred to as tense [i:] and lax [i] /(긴장 모음 vs. 이완 모음)

Mid front vowels

-[eɪ] in day and [ɛ] in bed

Low front vowels

-English has on short low front vowel, found in words like rat: the RP and GA vowel is represented as [æ],

-Many other kinds of BE have a lower vowel, transcribed as [a]

Back Vowels

High back vowels

-long [u:] as in shoe and short [ʊ] as in put

-As with [i:] and [i], the difference is in quality and quantity: [ʊ] is lower and more central, as well as shorter than [u:]

-[u:] is often diphthongized.

Mid back vowels

-[oʊ] in goat  vs. [ɔ:] in bought, cause, paw

Low cack vowels

-[ɑ] in father as in RP and GA, [ɒ](rounded) in dog as in many British varieties

: Many Midwestern speakers and most Far Western speakers of AE do not distinguish between the vowels in pairs of words such as "cot, caught," and "not, naught"  (Ladefoged p.39)

Central vowels

: [ʌ] in cup, luck, fuss

: Word like nurse, fir and worse typically have a mid central unrounded vowel [ɜ] in non-rhotic accents of English.

: [ə], the schwa, is found in syllables which do not carry stress.

: [ə] is also used as part of 'triphthongs'(삼중모음) in non-rhotic accents of English.

-towe, layer, mire, lawyer, lower

-these triphthongs are often subject to reduction.

RP  vs.  GA

RP

: Received Pronunciation (RP) is the accent often referred to as the 'prestige' accent in British society and associated with the speech of the graduates of the English public school. It is defined largely in terms of the social class of its speakers.

GA

: General American (GA) tends to be defined in terms of the geographical location, rather than the social class, of its speakers. The term 'GA' is an idealization over a group of accents whose speakers inhabit a vast proportion of the U.S.: it excludes Eastern accents such as the New York City accent, and Southern accents. (Carr 1999, p23)

Consonants  vs. Vowels

: The essential difference between consonants and vowels would seem to have to do with degree of stricture, i.e. the distance between the active and passive articulators.

: For consonants there is some kind of obstruction(방해) in the oral tract, whereas for vowels there is no such hindrance to the outflow of the air.

More on consonants  vs.  vowels

: The consonant/vowel distinction rests not so much with the phonetics as with the phonology.

: The vowel is said to be the nucleus (or peak) of the syllable, with any consonants preceding the nucleus said to be in the syllable onset, and any following the nucleus said to be in the syllable coda. 

: i.e. pin ('p' is the onset, 'i' is the nucleus, and 'n' is the coda.

: Glide behaves like consonants in that they do NOT form the nuclei of syllables.

: A vowel is a sound produced with open approximation and is a syllable nucleus.

: A glid is produced with open approximation but cannot be a syllable nucleus.

자음의 대분류

Obstruents  vs. Sonorant consonants

Obstrusents: The airflow is noticeably restricted, with the articulators either in complete closure or close approximation. i.e. oral stops, fricatives, affricates, there is voiceless  vs. voiced distinctions.

Sonorants: There is no such restriction in the oral tract or in the nasal tract; the air has free passage through the vocal tract (either through the oral or nasal tract).  i.e. nasal stops, liquids, glides, voiced only.

자음의 구분

-Obstruent Consonants

*Stops

: Stops are characterized by involving complete closure in the oral tract, preventing the airflow from existing through the mouth.

: Stops may be oral or nasal (or glottal).

: Oral stops are voiced or voiceless; nasal stops are voiced only.

-[p, b] - bilabial stops (pig, bear)

-[t, d] - alveorar stops (tiger, dog)

-[k, g] - velar stops (cat, gorilla)

-[?]  - glottal stop (uh-oh) -> voiceless only

Variation in stops

1. Aspiration (delayed VOT)

: voiceless stops fall into two classes: aspirated and unaspirated.  - i.e. pie, spy; tie, sty; core, score

: Aspirated consonants are followed by a brief puff of air, but unaspirated consonants are not.

: Hold palm in front of your lips and say pie. You will feel a puff of air, which you will not feel when you say spy.

: Precisely speaking, the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants depends on the timing of the vocal cord closure or vibration (which we call voice onset time or simply VOT.

: When you say pin (aspirated p), the vocal cords remain open for a short time after the lips come apart to relese the p.

: When we pronounce the unaspirated p in spin, the vocal cords start vibration as soon as the lips open.

2. Glottalization

: Glottalization or glottal reinforcement: As well as closure in the oral tract, there is an accompanying (brief) closure of the vocal cords, resulting in a kind of dual articulation.

: This glottalization is particularly likely for final stops in emphatic utterances, such as 'stop that!'

: Voiceless stops may be replaced by a glottal stop under some circumstances. i.e. - at night, Britain (before nasal)

-great smile, grape fruit (before a homoganic obstruent)

3. Place assimilation (많은 언어에서도 매우 흔한 현상)

-hot potato   bad boy   sad man

: In each case, the closure for the 't' ot 'd' will not be alveolar but will be assimilated the place of articulation f the following segment. (cf. homoganic consonants)

Fricatives

: Fricatives are produced when the active articulator is close to, but not actually in contact with, the passive articulator.

: As the air exits, it is forced through a narrow passage between the articulators, resulting in considerable friction, hence the term 'fricative'.

-[f,v] -labio-dental fricatives (fox, vixen)

-[θ,ð] - (inter)dental fricatives (moth, this)

-[s.z] - alveolar fricatives (snake, zebra)

-[ʃ,ʒ] - palato-alveolar fricatives (shrew, measure)

-[h] glottal fricative (haddock) (얘만 무성음)

-[x] voiceless velar fricative (loch in Scottish and Irish) 등등

Variation in fricatives

: Place assimilation to the following consonant

-horse shoe, Miss Universe, misjudge, cross check

-was she, freeze your toes, those shoes, please share

-cf. I'll bet you, I read your book)

: Complete assimilation of [,ð] to a preceding consonant

-in the pub

-all the time

-is there any beer

: Elision(탈락) of [v], [ð], or [θ] 

-piece of cake

-could have been

-months, clothes

Affricates

: The difference between affricates and stops lies in the nature of the release: for a standard stop, the active articulator is lowered swiftly and fully, allowing a sudden, unhindered explosion of air: for affricates, the active articulator remains close to the passive articulator, resulting in friction as the air passes between them, as for fricatives.

-[tʃ,dʒ] palato-alveolar affricates

: Phonetically, affricates are similar to a stop followed by a fricative; however, they do not behave like a sequence of two segments.

-Sonorant Consonants

Nasal

: Nasals are a variety of stop; they are formed with complete closure in the oral tract.

: The difference between nasal and oral stop is that for nasals the velum is lowered, allowing air into(and out through) the nasal cavity.

: Nasals are sonorants, and are thus typically voiced only.

-[m] -bilibial nasal (moth)

-[n] - alveolar nasal (nuthatch)

-[ŋ] - velar nasal (wing)

Variation in nasals: 'place' assimilation

-win more, can play, phone booth

-tin cup, mean guys, bacon grease

-triumph, nymph, comfort, some fun, in vain

-month, enthusiasm, on Thursday (cf. eight, width, health)

Liquids

: Liquid is a cover term given to 'l' and 'r' sounds

: What liquids have in common is that they are produced with unhindered airflow but nontheless involve some kind of obstruction in the oral tract (unlike glides and vowels, which are articulated with open approximation)

: Liquids are sonorants and are typically voiced.

Liquids: laterals

: With laterals, there is contact between the active articulator (the tongue) and the passive articulator(the roof of the mouth)

: But only the central part of the tongue is involved in this contact (mid-sagittal contact); there is no contact for (at least on of) the sides of the tongue.

: The air is free to exit along the channels down the sides of the oral tract, hence the name 'lateral'.

-only [l] exits in English.

Variation in laterals: clear  vs.  dark 'l'

-[l] leaf, let, please, clean, simply

-[ɫ] feel, tell, help, milk, film, simple,

-Clear /l/ is the normal /l/ sound produced as lateral liquid.

: Dark /l/, like clear /l/, is made with the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge. primary articulation.

: In addition, there is a simulataneous raising of the back of the tongue towards the velum.

(secondary articularion(velarization)

Liquids: rhotics

:Rhotics include a wide variety of articulations, even within English:

-the alveolar trill(진동/rrr) [r]: the tongue blade vibrates repeatedly against the alveolar ridge (Scottish)

-the alveolar tap(/flap) [ɾ]: a single tap of the tongue blade against the alveolar ridge (North AE and Scottish)

-the alveolar [ɹ]: produced with the tongue blade raised towards the alveolar ridge and the sides of the tongue in contact with the molars, forming a narrow channel down the middle of the tongue (many kinds of BE, including RP)

-the retroflex [ɺ̢]: produced in a way similar to [ɹ] but with the tongue blade curled back to a post-alveolar position (North AE and South West BE)

Glides

: In articulatory terms, glides are rather more like vowels than consonants, since there is no contact of any kind between the articulators (cf. semi-vowels).

: Glides behave like consonants, however, in that they do not form syllable nuclei.

-[j] a palatal glide (similar to [i], with the front of the tongue close to the palate) (e.g. yes)

-[w] a labial-velar glide (similar to [u], with rounded lips and the back of the tongue raised toward the velum) (e.g. weight)

-[ɥ] a labial-palatal glide (similar to the front round vowel [y] in lui [lɥi] him in French)

Manner of articulation (MOA)

; MOA refers to the vertical relationship between the active and passive articulations, i.e. the distance between them(usually known as stricture:간격)

stops                  ↑                협착 커짐, 거리 좁아짐 (less distance bet. active and passive articulators.

affricates                                                             greater stricture, = narrowing of a passage)

fricatvives      

liquids

glides

vowels                ↓                 협착 작아짐, 거리 멀어짐 (greater distance bet. active and passive less stricture)

Stops : are consonants in which the airstream is completely blocked in the oral cavity for a short period.

pie, buy, tie, die, kye, gyu, my, nigh, sing (m,n,ng는 비음이자 stops) 완전한 폐쇄

Fricatives: When the artivulators are close together, but without complete closure (a stricture known as close approximation), the air is forced through the narrow gap between the articulators, causing some turbulence.매우 가까운 접근

five, vie, thight, thy, sigh, zoo, shy, pleasure, high 

Affricatea (파찰음): are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect characteristic of a fricative (i.e. stop plus fricative).

church, judge

Glides: for the other major sound types - liquids, glides and vowels - there is relatively free passage of air through the oral tract.

-For vowels and glides (or semi-vowels), the articulators are wide apart and the air flows unhindered -> open approximation

yolk, woke

Liquids: there is both contact and free air passage.

-For the 'r' sound, the sides of the tongue are in contact with the gums, but the air flows freely down the center of the tongue.

-For the 'l' sound, the center of the tongue is in contact with the alveolar ridge but the air flows out freely over the lowered sides of the tongue.

rake, lake

Linguistic Knowledge

*Language: Gift only to human

 - We talk all the time, even in sleep

 - Language makes humans human.

*Linguistic knowledge

 - The ability to speak and be understood by others

 - The knowledge that most speakers are unaware of

c.f. writing letters is different ability.

*But what dose it mean to 'know' a language?

 - the sound system

 - words

 - the creativity

 - sentences & nonsentences

Knowledge of the sound system

*Knowledge unconsciously what sounds are in that language & what sounds are not

e.i. English [f] / Korean [p]

*Knowledge of sounds is language specific

Knowledge of Words

*Knowing that certain sound sequences signify certain concepts or meanings

*The sound units that are related to specific meanings -> words

*The arbitrary relationship between form (sounds) & meaning(concept)

*Sound symbolism : sometime pronunciation suggests meaning

*Most onomatopieic words

The Creativity of Linguistic Knowledge

*Creative aspect of language use: being able to produce new sentences never spoken before and to understand sentences never heard before.

*There is no 'longest sentence'

*Creativity is a universal property of human language: all languages are like that.

Knowledge if Sentences & Nonsentences

*To memorize and store an infinite set of sentences is not possible: The brain is finite.

*Putting one word after another in any order does not form sentences

*Linguistic knowledge includes determining which strings of words are and which are not sentences

Linguistic Competence vs. Performance

*Distinction by N. Chomsky

*Competence: -The native speaker's idealized knowledge to produce sentence of a language, language universal(independent), complete and perfect, linguistic knowledge

*Performance: The actual use of that language in concrete situations, incomplete and imperfect (e.g. slips of tongue)

Grammar

*The sounds and sound patterns, the basic units of meaning such as words, and the rules to combine all of these to form sentences with the desired meaning. - Rules or principles

*Two models of grammar: Descriptive grammar, Prescriptive grammar

Descriptive Grammars: 기술문법

-What native speakers know about their language in order to make use of it.

-Every human being who speaks a language knows its grammer.

-Linguistic describe the grammer of the language that exists in the minds of its speakers.

-Grammaticality

  *grammatical (depending on dialect, style, etc): She doesn't know, she don't know

  *Ungrammatical (regardless of style): She not know, She known't

-NO language or dialect is superior to any other in a linguistic sense.

-No grammar, therefore no language, is either superior or inferior to any other.

-Every grammar is equally complex, logical, and capable of producing an infinite set of sentences to express any thought.

Prescriptive Grammars: 규정문법

-Rules of proper usage that distinguish "good" grammar from "bad" grammar: I is okay -> Bad

-An attempt to tell the users of the language how to use it in order to speak correctly

-Grammarians wish to prescribe rather than describe the rules of grammar

-They believed that language change is corruption, and that there are certain forms that all educated people should use in speaking and writing -> Language Purists

Fallacies concerning Grammar

-There are languages that have "no" grammar or "little" grammar.

-Certian types of grammars are simpler and hence more "primitive" than others.

-Grammars should be "logical"

-Grammars "deteriorate" or "evolve"

Teaching Grammar

-Grammar used in school to fullfill language requirements.

-State explicity the rules of the language, list the words and their pronunciations, and aid in learning a new language or dialect.

-Assumes that the student already knows one language and compares the grammar of the target language with that of the native language. (모국어 간섭)

Language Universals

-Laws representing the universal properties of all languages constitute a universal grammar

-N. Chomsky: There is a universal grammar that is part of the human biologically endowed language faculty.

Human beings are born with an innate "blueprint" for language -> Universal Grammar

-The linguist's goal is to discover the "laws of human language"

OE Pronunciation Practice

Phonological Splits

*Primary split (Conditioned/Allophonic change)

*Secondary split (Unconditioned/Phonemic change) - 가장 중요한 포인트는 컨디션이 무너진다는 것.

-철자는 보수적이기 때문에 변화하기 힘듬

OE Pronunciation

*Allophonic Rules1: Primary Split

: /f/ <f>-[f]/[v]    ,  /θ/ -  [θ]   [ð]   /s/ - [s] [z]

-Voiceless fricatives became voiced between voiced sounds. (mase, fæsl, ofnas vs. fif, offrian, fifta)

*Allophonic Rules2: Primary Split

a. /n/  -> [n]  [ŋ]           /g/ ->   [g]   [ɣ]

-/n/ became [ŋ] before a welar consonant. (singan, gang, þanc   vs.  font, ende, non)

-/g/ became [ɣ] between vowels, between a consonant other than [ŋ] and a vowel, or finally except after [ŋ]. (lagu, agan, fuglas, sorg  vs. frogga, sungen, song)

*Allophonic Rules 3: Primary Split

/h/  -> [ç]  [x] 

-/h/ became [ç ] after front vowels(tiht, nihsta, vs. hilt, eoh, ruh)

-/h/ became [x] after back vowels (fah, eoh, brohte, neah vs. hal, riht)

*Secondary split

/k/ ->/k/, /tʃ     /g/ -> /g/, /j/

-/tʃ/usually after or before front vowels. (pic., c.ildru, c.idan  vs. cepan, cynn, brecan)

-/j/ usually after or before front vowelss. (g.ecoren, g.ear, dæg.  vs.  ges, gylden)

OE Alphabets: Roman alphabets and Runic alphabets

*Runic Alphabet

-Runic (from OE run 'mystery, secret')

-Used in all Germanic-speaking area

-Influenced by both the Greek and the Latin alphabets

-Designed for scratching or carving on wood or stone

-Called as futhark in Germanic or futhorc in Anglo-Saxon

*Roman alphabet

-Adopted with the Christianization of England in the late sixth century

-Continental type (vs. Insular type)

-<q,x,z>: Known but used infrequently- <x>[ks], <q>[kw]-womb, z[ts]

-<y>: rounded high fromt vowel [u:]

-<c>: instead of <k>

*Wynn과 thorn은 Runic에서 옴. 중세에 eth와 thorn은 th로 대체됨

*Abbreviations

-&(=ampersand): and

-7('and-'): andswaru=7swaru 'answer'

-co-(=com 'com'): n or m 생략

*Punctuation: raised dot'.'=pause

-고대영어는 마침표가 없어 문장의 끊음이 없기 때문에 복원, 편집본이 매우 다양하고 다름.

*Prologue of Beowulf

<Anglo-Saxon Scribe>

OE Consonants

 *x ,ɣ는 현재 독일어에 존재, ç도 독일어엔 잔재, 현대 영어엔 사라짐

OE Vowels

-Short and long vowels

Phonetics vs. Phonology

: Phonetics is the physical description of the actual individual sonds used in human languages. e.g. articulatory, auditory, acoustic phonetics.

: phonology studies the sounds are organized into patterns(i.e. the relationa among sounds,) and systems(i.e. the inventory of truly significants')

Sound patterns: may be simple as the fact that the velar nasal [ng] cannot begin a syllable in English, or as complex as why the g in sign is silent, but is pronounced in the related word signature. (cf. autumn vs. autumnal, bomb vs. bombard)

: Phonetics studies the surface, physical aspects of sounds, phonology deals with the underlying, mental aspects that control this usage. Phonology concerns what's in our head.

: Phonology is part of our linguistic competence and phonetics is rather about performance. N. Chomsky

*Articulatory phonetics: how the speech sounds are produced by the speaker

Aspects of speech production to consider:

a. the airstream mechanism

b. the state of the vocal cords

c. the state of the velum

d. the manner of articulation

e. the place of  articulation

Airstream mechanism

*The major initiator is the lungs

-trachea (windpipe)

-larynx (in the Adam's apple) 성대

-vocal tract성도 (pharynx인두 +oral cavity구강 +nasal cavity비강)

*Types of airstream mechanism

-pulmonic(허파에서부터 airstream 시작, 영어/한국어 포함 거의 모든 언어), velaric(연구개에서), glottalic(성문에서 시작)

-egressive, ingressive (공기의 흐름 방향에 따라 구분)

**English is pulmonic egressive, uesd in all human languages. Velaric ingressive- Zulu(S. Africa), glottalic egressive- Navajo, glottalic ingressive- Sindhi.

*Larynx안에 Vocal cords

*Vocal Tract 3부분 - Oral cavity, Nasal cavity, Pharynx

*입천장 3부분 - Alveolar ridge(치경), Hard palate(경구개) , Velum(연구개), Uvula(구개수)

The state of the vocal cords

The state of the velum

*Velum: (or soft palate) is a muscular flap at the back of the roof the mouth. When the velu, is raised all the way to touch the back of the throat, the passage through the nose is cut off and air can escape only through the mouth(=oral sound). When the velum is not in its raised position air escape through both the nose and the mouth(=nasal sound)

*주요 조음 기관 명칭과 형용사형

1. Oral cavity

2. Nasal cavity

3. Lip - labial

4. Teeth - dental

5. Alveolar ridge - alveolar

6. Palate - palatal

7. Velum - velar

8. Uvula - uvular

9. Pharynx - pharyngeal

10. Larynx - laryngeal

The active and passive articulators

*The active articulators - lower lips and toungue

*the passive articulators - the upper surface of the oral tract

Historical Background of Old English

Celtic

Brythonic(P-Celtic): Continental(Gualish)

                         Insular(Breton, Welsh, Cornish)

Goidelic(Gealic)(Q-Celtic): Irish, Scottish, Manx(Isle of Man)

*Celtic Name of Location: Thames, Avon, London, York....

The Roman Conquest

*Caesar(BC 55)

*Claudius(AD 43)

*England (vs. Wales, ,Scotland, Northern Ireland)

*Britain (<Latin Britania, 오늘날의 England 지역)

*Scots: Nothern Ireland, Pits: Scotland

*British Celts (Britons; Romanized Celts)

*Latin loan words(latin 1차 차용/군사적, 일상적 단어)

; campus>camp, wallu>wall, cuppa>cup...

Withdrawal of Roman troops (by AD 410)

 *본국 방어를 위한 철수

cf. 글래디에이터, 킹아서

The Germanic Conquest

*Venerable Bede (AD 730), in Jarrow

Historica Eccelesiastica Gens Anglorum - Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation

*Invasion of Scots and Pits: Romanized 된 Briton들을 침입, Germanic을 용병으로 고용, 방어하고자 함

*The coming of Germanic tribes (AD 449)

-Angles, Saxons, Jutes..

-Wales (Welsh), Cornwall (Corninsh), Brittany (Breton): Germanic tribes가 점령하지 못한 지역, Breton은 그들의 지배에서 도망간 Briton들이 프랑스 북동부 지역(프로방스 지역)으로 도망가 정착, 현재도 Celt어족을 사용.

cf. 영국교회사

**449 AD를 기점으로 해서 그들이 가져온 언어: 고대 영어로 지칭함.

*Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy (7왕국, Greek hepta'seven')

-Nothumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, Kent

-Angelcyn Angle-kin>England ' land of the Angles' (*Angli>Engle. I-mutation)

-Anglo-Saxon 'the language of this period or its speakers'

**박영배, 2001. 앵글로 색슨족의 역사와 언어

- Introduction of Christianity

*Heathen Tradition of the Germanic

-Two(>Tuesday), Frig(>Friday), Woden(>Wednesday), Thunor(>Thursday)

-Eostre(>Easter, 봄의 여신) 이교도+기독교의 혼합주의

*Roman Christianity

-St. Augustine (Pope Gregory I)

-AD 597 Canterbury in Kent

-King Ethelbert(AD 604) 기독교로 개종

<개종하는 King Ethelbert>

*Irish Christianity

-Aiden from Iona

-AD635, Lindisfarne in Northumbria, Jarrow (Bede) 학문적, 종교적 부흥이 시작

<Iona>

<St. Mary's Church in Lindisfarne>

*Lain loanwords (religion, history, philosophy)

-apostle, canon, pope, rule, hymn, alter, temple, synod, palm, psalm, cleric, angel, nun, deacon, disciple, creed, demon, history, title, cancer

The Viking Conquest (AD 800~1066)

* Viking< Old Norse   vik 'a bay'

*1st Conquest

-Danes, Swedes, Norwegians

-Lindisfarne, Jarrow를 침략, 모든 것들이 소실됨

*King Alfred(871-899)

-Edington, Danelaw (876)

-Translation of Latin Texts

-Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (AD 891-1155)

-West Saxon: standard written OE dialect (고대영어 중, West Saxon의 영어, 후기의 영어를 배우는 것임)

-많은 Latin 문헌을 OE로 번역하게 함.

<King Alfred the Great>

*2nd Conquest

- Maldon (The battle of Maldon, 바이킹이 영국 전지역을 점령 후, 전투장면만 계속됨 )

- King Olaf  vs. King Aethelred (the unready)

- "London Bridge is falling down"

Scandinavian Influence on English

*Place Names

- -gate(Old Norwegian gata 'string')

--thorp(-drup, -rup)

-by(<ON byr ' a village)

*Lexical Words

-Nouns : band, bull, egg, fellow, kid, leg, reef, scale, seat, sister, skin, skin, strak, swain, window, bird, loan, guess, race, skill, slaughter, trust, want, gift..

-Verbs : call, die, get, give, lift, raise, rid, take, cast, clip, kindle, sprint, thrust

-Adjectives : flat, low, odd, tight, weak, awkward, meek, sly, muggy

*Function Words

-they, their, them, booth, though, till.. 

OE Dialects

*Kentish: Kent

*West Saxon: Wessex, Sussex

*Mercian: Mercia, East Anglia, Essex

*Northumbrian: Northumbria

*Mercian+Northmbrian: Anglian(Angles)

시간이 흘러 Germanic 도 갈라져 일어나기 시작한 변화

PIE->Gmc->Branches of Gmc->Pre-OE

(선사 고대 영어 시대- 문헌 없는 고대)OE

*Pre-OE Palatalization(입천장 딱딱한 부분; 구개음화) *조음음성학 들을것!

: labial, dental, alveolar, velar (No Palatal!)  e.g. 굳이->구지, 구도->구도 (vowel difference, 모음'l'는 palatal sound 이기 때문에 자음이 미리 이동하며 자음변화가 일어남)

*Pre-OE palatalization of velars in some West Germanic dialects(ingvaeonic): 영어 속한 westG에서만 발생, EastG(German:독일어)에서는 일어나지 않음

  /k/>/c/./g/(velar)>/j/,/sk/>/s/ before or after front vowels or the palatal glide/j/

Palatalization

*/k/>/c^/(spelled<c'>in OE : 모음 i에 의한 구개음화

OE   c'ildru      Ger   kinder          PE  children  

OE   c'iric'e      Ger   kurikon        PE  church

OE   c'easter    Lat   castrum        PE  -chester:

                     'military camp'         Manchester, Winchester (-caster: Lancaster)차용된 시기에 따라 같은 단어인데 형태가 달라짐

OE   c'salc       Lat    calcem        PE   chalk

OE   c'eap       Lat    caupo         PE   cheap

NO Palatalization

OE  corn           Gth   kaurn

OE  cliff            Swd  klippa

OE   cent 'Kent'            <  Lat   Cantia

OE   cene 'keen'           Old high Ger   kuomi

OE   cylen 'kiln'            <  Lat   culima

OE   cyssan 'kiss'           Old Sax   kussian

*[sk]>[s] (spelled <sc> in OE

OE   scip          Dan     skib         PE   ship

OE   fisc           NGmc  fisk          PE   fish

c.f  skip, skin, skim, skill,sky  (sk 앞 i=> Scandinavian loan words, native words changed into 'sh')

Doublets produced by platalized vs. nonplatalized forms

*Doublets: two or more words from the same earlier form,

e.g. Gmc blaikjan  

OE   bl'ae'c'an   O Norse  blaikr

PE   bleach    vs.    bleak

OE  sc[s^]yrte,   O Norse   skyrta

PE   shirt      vs.    skirt

*[g]>[j] (spelled <g'>[j] in OE>

OE   geolu (이에올루)      Ger   gelb            PE  yellow

OE   geard                          Dan  gard            PE  yard

Palatalization in Old French

*Latin/k/>/c^/before /a/ in Norman French(NF) words, many of which were borrowed into English after the Norman conquest:

Lat    campus                NF     champion          PE     champion

                                                                         (campus)

Lat    candela                NF     chandelier          PE     chandler

                                                                  (chandelier, candle)

Lat    cantare(암탉)      NF     chanter             PE     chant

                                                                         (cantata)

Pre-OE Umlaut

*Umlaut of back vowel in all Germanic dialects except Gothic before high vowels and the palatal glide [j]

PGmc *[u]>[u"] (spelled <y> in OE

PGmc*[o]>[o"](later spelled<e> in OE

*The attraction of vowels towards the upper corner of the vowel space (I-Umlaut) (Lass 1994:60)

*I-Umlaut and its morphological effect

                       sg.                            pl.

Input             *mu:s                          *mu:s-i-

I-Umlaut         *mu:s                         *mu":s-i- (phonetic:음운 변화 예측 가능)

i-deletion        *mu:s                         *mu":s  (앞에 fixed stress 때문에 ending vowel 탈락)

OE output        mu:s                          my:s  (phonemic: )

*PGmc    go-s   'goose'        vs.    go-siz   'geese'

 PGmc    fo-t    'foot'           vs.    fo-tiz   'feet'

PGmc     lang (Adj.)        PE   long

PGmc     langip             PE   length

1. Morphologically marked distinction between past and non-past tenses

1.1. Dental suffix /D/ or Vowel change

-PE sing-sang-song (ablaut 오리지널형에서 변형, non-germanic에서 다 발견)

-PE work-worked-worked (dental suffix, past -ed)

*dental suffix is a germanic innovation, germanic에서만 발견됨, PIE에서 갈라진 이후 발생(germanic 내부에선 갈라지지 않은 때)

Weak verbs(dental suffix): OE deman(original)-demde(singular past)-gedemed(p.p) 'judge'

Strong verbs(ablaut): bitan-bat-biton-gebiten 'bite'

1.2. Strong form vs. weak forms of adjectives

-Strong form

Adjective+Noun: e.g. PE good water

-Weak form

*Demonstrative+ADJ.+N e.g. PE the good water

*Pssessive Pronoun+ADJ.+N e.g. PE my good water

OE     micel guma       se micela guma

Latin   magnus homo   iste magnus homo

PE      (a) great man    the great man 

1.3. Fixed stress accent on root initial syllable

-IE free pitch accent vs. Gmc fixed Stress

*pitch는 vocal chord에서 결정, 높낮이, stress는 강약, 탈락되는 음이 많음

1.4. First Germanic Consonant Shift (not change, shift)

*<Grimm's Law> **영어사에서 가장 중요한 shift는 Grimm's Law와 Great Vowel Shift(14세기 전후 발생)

*aspiration 사라지고 fricative 생김

-PIE voiceless stops/p,t,k/>Gmc voiceless fricatives /f,θ,x/

*/p/>/f/    Latin   pedis, pes,               PE   foot (pedestrian: loan word)

                        pater                     OE   fader

                        clepo                    Goth hlifan (kleptomaniac: loan word)

*/t/>/θ/    Latin    tu                         OE   'thou'

                        tres                        PE   three

*/k/>/x/  Latin   caput                      OE  heofud  ' head'

x->h                                                    (PE capital; chapter: 각 latin, old french에서 loan word)

                        centum                   PE   hund(red)   'red는 숫자라는 뜻'

-PIE voiced stops/b,d,g/>Gmc voiceless stops /p,t,k/

*/b/>/p/    Greek  kannabis                 OE henep 'hemp'

*/d/>/t/     Latin  dens, dentis              PE  tooth (dentist: loan)

                    duo                                 two

*/g/>/k/    Latin   ager                       PE  acre   (agriculture: loan)

                        granum                        corn

**당연히 sementic change 수반

-PIE voiced aspirated stops /bh,dh,gh/>Gmc voiced stops /b,d,g/

IE       *bh      *dh       *gh

Lat       f          f           h

skt      bh        dh         h

Gmc     b         d          g

*/bh/>/b/   Skt   bharati                    PE  bear  'carry'

                Lat   fero                                     ferry

*/dh/>/d/   skt  madhu                     PE   mead

*/gh/>/g/   Lat   hurtus 'garden'          PE   garden   (horticulture)

                       hostis 'enemy'           Go   gasts  'stranger'

                                                    PE   hostile

Grimm's Law (Apparent Exceptions)

-After a voiceless stop

Latin  octo                      OE  eahta                 PE  eight

Latin  captus                   OE  h(ea)ft                PE  captive

-After [s]

Latin  spuo                     PE  spit

Latin  stella                    PE  star

Latin  scutum 'shield        Old Norse   ski

- Verner's Law

: After Grimm's Law, certain changes occured again. Germanic voiceless fricatives / f,θ,x,s/ (resulting Grimm's law) became voiced fricatives /v, ð,z / when they were between voiced sounds and preceded by an unaccented vowel.

Lat  caput 'head'               Gothic   haubip

Grk klutos 'famous'            OE       hlud  'loud'

Grk dekas  'group of ten     Gothic  tigus

Skt  snusa 'daughter in law  OE       snoru

-Grimm>Verner>Subsequent changes

Subsequent sound changes in some dialects

Rhotacism:[z]>[r]

(Latin flos; flosis > flozis>floris

Phonological strengthening: [v ð ]> [b d g]

-cognate words